Analysis fo the Dairy Industry in Pakistan

Analysis fo the Dairy Industry in Pakistan Introduction The prospering dairy industry of the country seems an embryonic market for branded dairy products, especially in the urban areas, where branded and packed milk, curd and butter are rapidly capturing the market. In fact, the consternation of adulteration, germs, decades-old style of improper handling of dairy products, particularly loose milk and curd by milkmen and shopkeepers, are impelling a large number of consumers in the country to bid adieu to the traditional milkman. Consumer preferences have changed in the favor of packaged dairy products, which ensure better hygiene and good value for money. In Pakistan when we talk about adulteration in loose milk. These kinds of fears and health hazards relating to loose dairy items are steadily changing the mindset of the consumers. Seeing this change and an enormous untapped potential of growth in packaged dairy products in the country in future, several local and multinational companies have introduced their branded dairy items in the r ecent past. In Pakistan, when someone talks about branded milk and curd, the name of Haleeb and Nestle comes to the mind of the people as they have emerged as two strong market leaders, who have swiftly captured the unexplored business of packed milk, curd, butter, margarine, etc. The emergence of these two brand leaders in the country has also encouraged several others to introduce branded dairy products. At present over a dozen companies are actively marketing branded dairy items in the country and among them the most famous are CDL Foods Limited, Bhaipheru; Idara-e-Kissan, Pattoki; Kabirwala Dairy; Lahore Milk Plant, Lahore; Millac Food (Pvt) Ltd., Lahore; Monnoo Dairies, Bhowana; Nestle Milkpak Ltd., Sheikhupura; Noon Pakistan Ltd., Bhalwal; Pakistan Milk Food Manufacturers, Jhang; Prime Dairies, Manga; Royal Dairy Products, Karachi; Ravi Dairies, Jaranwala and Unilever Pakistan Ltd., Sheikhupura, Bhaipheru, Karachi. Besides marketing milk and curd most of the companies are sell ing dairy products with innovation such as yogurt (natural and flavored), sweetened milk, UHT and pasteurised cream, butter, ghee, cheese and ice cream. In Pakistan Nestle is a great success story for establishing the largest milk collection network and setting new trends in dairy sector. On the one hand, it has proved a regular source of income for farmers through an assured and growing income resulting from the sale of their milk, and on the other, it has enabled Nestle to collect better quality milk in the quantities it needs. The basic unit of Nestle milkmans milk collection system is the Village Milk Collection Centre where farmers deliver milk, morning and evening. A trained milk collection agent who tests and records every supply for quality and fat content collects the milk. Over three thousand such centres operate throughout Punjab. This milk is then transported to the nearest sub-centres for mechanical chilling and then to the main centres where it is consolidated and chil led further, before being transported in specially designed insulated tankers to the factories in Sheikhupura and Kabirwala. According to background, dairy is one of the growing segment of livestock sub-sector and important component of Pakistans economy. Pakistan is the fifth largest producer of milk in the world. The per capita availability of milk at present is 185 litres, which is the highest among the South Asian countries. Milk production in Pakistan has seen a constant increase during the last two decades. The production has increased from 8.918 million metric tons in 1981 to 27.031 million metric tons in 2001-02. Milk production for the year 2002-03 is estimated at 27.811 million metric tons. Investment Prospects: There is a large and untapped potential in the dairy industry. With a population of 160 million, a significant demand for dairy products exists in Pakistan. There is a need for establishing modern milk processing and packaging facilities based on advanced technolog y to convert abundantly available raw milk into high value added dairy products. In addition, with improved conditions for milk pasteurisation, availability of chilled distribution facilities and consumer preference for the low cost pasteurised milk, the sector provides unique opportunity for investment in establishing pasteurised milk production plants. There is also great scope for establishing related industries in the form of an efficient milk collection system and refrigeration transportation facilities. The sector offers opportunity to foreign investor for establishing a joint venture for the production of dairy products, particularly dried milk and infant formula milk for which great demand exists in the neighboring countries like Iran, UAE and Saudi Arabia. The dairy industrys main ingredient is milk, which is processed at the dairy plants to produce variety of dairy products. The average daily production of milk in Pakistan is estimated at approximately 95 million litres. Punjab is the leading province in milk production with a share of around 80%. Out of the total production of 95 million litres of milk per day, about 55% is consumed at source in the countryside while the remaining 45% is traded in urban centres. Most of the traded milk is marketed un-processed and currently only about 2.5 to 3 per cent of the traded milk is processed by the dairy industry in Pakistan. Processed liquid milk in the form of Pasteurized or Ultra Heat Treated (UHT) milk is the main dairy product in Pakistan while other products include Dry Powdered Milk, Cream, Butter, Butter Oil, Yogurt, Cheese and ice cream. Presently, about 13 units in the organised sector are engaged in the production of various dairy products. Majority of the dairy plants are located in the vicinity of Lahore, which serves as the hub of this industry Milk Processing Out of the 28 million tons of milk produced in Pakistan, only 2.5 to 3 per cent reaches the dairy plants for processing into variety of dairy products. Pakistans dairy industry produces Ultra Heat Treated (UHT) Milk, Pasteurized Milk, Dry Milk Powder, and Condensed milk. Other major milk products produced by the dairy industry include butter, yogurt, ice cream, cheese, cream and some butter oil. Approximately half of the 0.3 million tons of milk available to the industry is processed into UHT milk, 40 percent into powdered milk, and the remaining 10 percent into pasteurised milk, yogurt, cheese and butter etc. Dairy plants in Pakistan Of the 38 major dairy plants established in the country with a capital investment of Rs. 2.392 billion and having a daily rated capacity of 2,180,000 litres, only 13 plants are currently in operation. The rated milk processing capacity of the 13 plants in operation is estimated at a little over one million litres per day. In addition, two dairy farms of the Pakistan military operating on non-commercial basis have raised Pakistans daily production of processed milk, yogurt and butter. The reasons for failure of large number of dairy plants are several and may differ from plant to plant. The most common reasons include an over estimation of demand for processed milk, too rapid investment in UHT technology, lack of consumer education, high price of UHT processed milk, non development of sustainable milk collection system, lack of trained manpower and insufficient operational funds. For the same reasons, the capacity utilisation of dairy plants in operation is around 40 per cent. The low capacity utilisation prevents most UHT milk processing plants from recovering much more than their variable costs. Next to the raw material i.e. raw milk cost available to the plants for Rs. 14 per litre on average, packaging is the most important cost element. Expensive packaging forms part of UHT technology. Despite immense potentials the dairy sector in Pakistan has been victim of criminal neglect by the successive governments in the country. Even at its present lowest-in-the-world yield per milk cattle, Pakistan is surplus in milk production; but due to lack of proper planning, collection and distribution facilities, a major portion of the total production is consumed, per force, by the producers in the far-flung areas. As against this we are importing 25000 tonnes of powder milk annually to meet the demand of the urban areas at a cost of above 300 million dollar. Pakistan ranks 7th among milk producing countries, with an estimated 21 billion liters of milk produced annually. A lthough this level of milk production is more than adequate on a per capita basis for todays population, lack of processing and poor distribution system in a long hot weather (milk has a shelf life of only four hours under moderate temperatures) keeps it from reaching consumers in areas that are either deficient in milk production, particularly the urban centres, or those that are difficult to access. The milk yield per cow in the neighbouring country is about 3000 liters per lactation period as against 1000 liters in Pakistan. In Western Europe the average exceeds 5000 liters, in USA 9000 and Israel exceeds 7000 liters per lactation period. After extensive research Indian Livestock Ministry has introduced a programme to gradually replace buffaloes with cows, which give more milk, by educating their farmers through their well-established cooperatives and successfully carried out the replacement programme during the last decade or so. During this period India has almost doubled its m ilk production from 38 to 72 billion liters and now ranks at No. 2 after USA with 74-billion liters in milk production. Despite feeding its huge population, India is exporting huge quantity of powder and processed and packed milk. To increase its yield of milk, India has made full use of Israeli expertise who have been trained by the US. Through artificial insemination India had developed a new breed of cows which yield 3000 liter per lactation period instead of previous record of 1200 liters. Pakistans tremendous potential to increase its milk production has so far remained unexplored due to the inactivity of the government and the related bodies which were created with much of fanfare. This neglect appears criminal in view of the fact that milk production despite its lowest yield, is even today far ahead of the major cash crops such as wheat, cotton, rice and sugarcane Conclusion There is huge demand of both powdered and packed milk in the neighbouring countries of Iran, UAE, Saudia Arabia beside Malaysia, and Philippine which Pakistan can successfully harness to its advantage if due attention is paid to this sector. By copying Indian plan, Pakistan can also develop a new breed of cows within a period of about 4/5 years and thereby increase its production by over 100 per cent. Pakistan can become a big exporter of dry and processed milk provided due attention is paid to this sector. Presently in Pakistan only about 22 per cent of milk production is processed, about 57.5 per cent is supplied to urban areas in raw form in most unhygenic conditions causing real health hazards. Rest is consumed by the farmers, mostly per force, specially in the far-flung areas for lack of proper facilities to take it to deficient areas. About 75 per cent of the total production of raw milk is produced in Punjab, 14 per cent in Sindh 10 per cent in NWFP and only 1 per cent in Balo chistan. In Punjab we have more buffalos than cowl in about 60-40 ratio, in Sindh it is 50-50, in NWFP dead 20 per cent buffalos and 80 per cent cows. In Balochistan there are mostly cows. Unlike other progressive countries where sale of raw milk is disallowed by law and processing is mandatory due to milk being one of the two major carriers of diseases (water being the other), Pakistan continues to allow 97-5 per cent milk to be distributed through the traditional gawala system. To the bacteria of tuberculosis and hepatitis that naturally occurs in milk, the gawala adds many more varieties through the addition of contaminated water for its dilution. The contractors, who collect milk in bulk from villages in Punjab through the dodhis the middlemen, and sell it to the urban consumers, go a step further. They add unhygenically produced ice slabs, caustic soda and sometimes formaline to the milk they collect to prevent it from going bad due to intense heat in summers. The UHT process, although expensive, has proven to be a success in Pakistan as it increases milks shelf life to 12 weeks. On the other hand, the pasteurization process inspite of its low procession cost, had not made much of a headway due to the short shelf life of its product and its dependence on old chain from production to consumption. Taking advantage of this cost factor, some milk marketers have begun marketing loose milk in urban areas which they claim to be pasteurized. The UHT process add heavily to the cost of milk as it requires huge investment to set up the plant, production of packing material and above all the collection cost of the milk making it beyond the purchasing power of poor and even lower middle class. Pasteurization process is much cheaper comparatively as the process is much simple and packing material much cheaper. Small pasteurization plants can play an important role to meet the milk demand of cities and towns provided there is a strong and efficient organization to ensu re that all necessary precautions are taken and hygienic requirements for pasteurization process are met before supplying milk to the ultimate consumers. Village cooperatives in India have efficiently handled this problem and about 80 per cent of the milk requirement of urban areas are met through pasteurized milk at an average selling rate of Rs. 15 a liter as against Rs. 24 per liter in case UHT processed and packed milk. Nestle Milk Pak. Ltd., a joint venture with the reputed multinational Nestle of Switzerland operating in over 80 countries around the globe, has done the poineer work in the field of milk collection UHT processing on most modern and state of art machines and quality packing. Nestle has almost the monopoly of UHT processed milk in Pakistan. It is a household name in our affluent families. Poor and lower middle class cannot afford the price and for them it is still a luxury which they can enjoy only once a while. The price of Rs. 28 per cent for Nestle UHT processe d and packed milk appears high, but if you consider the cost of infrastructure manpower and middle men involved in the whole process the selling price is justified. Nestle is concentrating only in Punjab and has developed a remarkable set up to collect milk from areas stretching about 80,000 KMs, and keeping the collected milk chilled in the most hygenic conditions until it reaches the processing factory which may take 8 to 12 hours. They have set up over 2500 milk collection centers from where it is transported to the 520 chilling centres within less than 3/4 hours. Chilled milk is then transferred to the two factories at Sheikhupura near Lahore and Kabirwala near Multan in special trucks with freezing arrangements. It sounds unbelievable but it is a fact that all this organizational structure for collection of milk has been set up by a Swiss expert who arrived in Pakistan only seven years back. To meet J. Moser Head of Milk collection department of Nestle at one of Milk chilling c entre at Mandi Bhauddin was one of most exciting experience of my life. By any standard. J. Moser is an authority on milk production and milk cattle. He can talk for hours on various breed of cattle around the world, their milk yield, how they increased the yield and their future plants, domestic consumption of milk, pattern of consumption and capacity to export milk and milk products to deficient countries. In order to keep his knowledge up-to-date he frequently goes on tour of different countries. He has worked in Sri Lanka, frequently instead India since posted in Pakistan in 1993. In this region he is most impressed by the work done by India to increase their milk production, manage its collection and distribution to its ultimate consumers at an affordable cost. The cooperative societies in Indian rural areas have played a very significant role in developing the dairy sector in India. Hundreds of thousand milk collection centers have been set up to supply milk in bulk to thousan d of pasteurization plants under required unhygienic conditions in the outskirts of almost every city to ensure supply of good milk in abundance. Through artificial insemination programme going on for over a decade with the help of Israel and United States they have developed a special breed of cows with yield of over 3000 liter of Milk per lactation period as against 1000 about 12/13 years back. Mr. Moser told this correspondent that he developed his milk collection and chilling centres on the pattern of Indian cooperatives. A business organization, whatsoever bigger size it may have cannot meet the national requirements. We are concentrating only on the central parts of Punjab which is densely populated and where more milk is available. For other areas in Punjab, Sindh, N.W.F.P. and Balochistan no such arrangement exists. This huge task cannot be done without the financial assistance, help and cooperation of the government. With proper planning and financial support of the governm ent Pakistan Milk production can be doubled in 10 years time and country can become a big exporter of milk and milk products, Mr. Moser said disclosing that by giving shorts of seaman imported from Europe we have successfully carried out artificial insemination programme in Pakistan on experimental basis. Our experiment proved successful as some of the cows conceived and nurtured through this system are giving 18 liter milk a day instead of normal 10 liters. The work has to be done at a large scale for which Nestle is not equipped, he added. It is imperatives, therefore, that the issues of increase in its production, and distribution are tackled on progressive line. The federal government may appoint a task force to study the various aspect of the disarray sector, identify the factors which has hampered growth sofar and recommend measures to develop this sector properly to harness its tremendous potential for the betterment of national economy. Inclusion of a person like, J. Moser i n the proposed task force can be a real help. With the every passing day, dairy products are becoming costlier because live stock farming has not scientifically grown with the increase in population and also it did not match with the pace of urbanization. Recently, milk prices in Karachi increased without any reason. In a short time of two years, milk prices have gone up from Rs 20 per liter to Rs 25, showing a 25 percent increase. Moreover, meat prices have also risen to about 25 percent in the last six months. In such a situation, the only way to control prices is to develop the dairy industry on scientific lines, which will not only provide meat and milk in abundant quantities to the domestic consumers but extra quantities can also be exported. In spite of having a large population of LIVESTOCK, the country is spending some $40 million annually on the import of formula milk only, which is the highest amount spent by any country in the world on this particular commodity. Pollution affecting the Pakistani Dairy industry Seventeen units, including three run by multinational companies, are engaged in the manufacture of dairy products in Pakistan, but environmental pollution, as well as an inadequate supply chain, is hampering the growth of the dairy industry. Noise pollution is one of the factors. Pakistan exports meat to Saudi Arabia but is yet to export dairy products to it, although that is a possibility, said Ibad-ur-Rehman, an executive of Cleaner Production Programme, a private-sector company based in Karachi that offers environmental solution packages to the industry in the backdrop of rising local and international competition. The growth necessitates consistent and adequate supply of raw material, and this is possible in contract production. This is being done by at least one multinational company. Balochistan and Tharparkar district in Sindh, which have a sizeable livestock population, are some of the ideal locations for dairy farming, besides Punjab, he said. Milk, by and large, is the main ingredient of almost all dairy products. Average daily production of milk in Pakistan is about 130 million litres. Most of the traded milk is marketed unprocessed, and hardly two percent of the traded milk is processed by the dairy industry in Pakistan. Processed liquid milk in the form of pasteurised milk or ultra-heat-treated (UHT) milk is the main dairy product in Pakistan. Other products include dry powdered milk, cream, butter, butter oil, yoghurt, cheese and ice cream. The milk-manufacturing process includes pasteurization, homogenization, UHT treatment and packing. Through little additional work, cream is also produced during the pasteurization cycle. Pasteurized cream is churned to make butter. In order to obtain butter oil, butter is heated to 90C degrees in ghee-melters and then liquefied. The milk powder-making process primarily involves evaporation and drying. The main steps around which whole ice cream manufacturing process revo lves are pasteurization, homogenization, freezing and packing. But CPP findings show that the major environmental problem of the dairy industry is wastewater, while solid waste, soil pollution and noise pollution are potential aspects of environmental pollution. Wastewater generation at a dairy industry is characterized by very large volumes of discharge besides the pollution loading from various dairy processes. Estimates show that the proportion of the waste discharge at a typical dairy industry per unit of processed milk ranges from 12:1 to 24:1. This is a very high figure considering the typical ratio of 3:1 in cleaner factories in the developed countries. In modern plants this ratio gets as low as 1:1

feline leukemia virus :: essays research papers fc

FELINE PANLEUKOPENIA VIRUS Virus Classification:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Order:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mononegavirales  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Family:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parvoviridae   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Subfamily:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parvovirinae   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Genus:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parvovirus  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Species:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Feline panleukopenia virus Also called feline infectious eneritis, feline â€Å"distemper†, and feline ataxia or incoordination. Examples of other viruses belonging to the same genus as Feline panleukopenia virus include Canine parvovirus type 2, Porcine parvovirus, Mink enteritis virus, and Raccoon enteritis virus. Virus Structure:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) is a small (20 nm) autonomous , non –enveloped, icosahedral, single-stranded DNA virus that is approximately 5,120 nucleotides in legnth. The genome encodes for two genes which each form two proteins by alternative mRNA splicing. The non-enveloped capsid is assembled from 60 copies of a combination of the overlapping capsid proteins VP1 and VP2. The virus contains three capsid proteins. The capsids normally enter cells by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Replication of the virus in the host occurs in cells that are rapidly dividing. FPV can survive in pH ranging from 3 to 9. The virus is highly resistant to most disinfectants (ether, chloroform, acid, alcohol, and heat), but is susceptible to Clorox bleach. History and Natural Biology of Feline Panleukopenia Virus:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Feline panleukopenia is endemic to cats worldwide. The virus has been identified since the early 20th century. The virus is so severe that it was referred to as â€Å"cat plague† in earlier times when infections worldwide nearly wiped out cat populations in certain geographic areas. Now FPV rarely occurs in domestic populations in which vaccination is routinely practiced. There is a seasonality to the occurrence of FPV that usually coincides with the production of new populations of susceptible kittens. This seasonal effect may vary according to geographic location. In the northeastern United States, most cases of FPV are seen in the summer and early fall. However, outbreaks of FPV may occur at any time of the year. It is thought that feral domestic cat populations are a natural resevior for Feline panleukopenia virus. Clinical Features and Viral Pathogenesis:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All members of the cat family (Felidae) are susceptible to infection with feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), as are raccoons, and minks, in the family Procyoniclae. Three major body sytems are affected by FPV. FPV specifically depresses the white blood cells and thus the immune system of the host, it attacks the rapidly reproducing cells lining the gut, and FPV affects the reproducing cells of the cerebellum and the retina of the eye when they are in their developing stage. The system it chooses depends on the age of the cat at the time of infection.

Teaching of an aspect of mathematics and english education essay

Appraisal for larning ( AfL ) has become slightly of a cant and has been an involvement in instruction for over 20 old ages. Harmonizing to Braodfoot and Black ( 1994 ) appraisal sits at the nucleus of acquisition and serves as a communicative device between the universe of instruction and that of wider society. Since the Education Reform Act ( 1988 ) and coinciding debut of the National Curriculum ( NC ) , the Government has put important accent on appraisal. The NC in England and Wales was created to standardize acquisition, so that the quality of end product in schools could be measured ( Murray, 2003 ) . Therefore the impression of appraisal in order to mensurate criterions was cardinal to its development. In this essay I will critically analyze the beginnings and intent of AfL and so travel on to research how I, as a trainee instructor, implement AfL into my ain instruction. There are a figure of AfL devices that can be used within the schoolroom, from larning aims, ego and peer appraisal, formative usage of summational trials and feedback. Given the restraints with word count I will measure one specific country of AfL that I used during a sequence of three literacy lessons based around Instructions ; oppugning. Subsequent to the debut of the NC, the Task Group for Assessment and Testing ( TGAT ) was developed in order to construct on the NC, planing a system of national testing and instructor appraisal ( DES/WO,1988 ) . The undertaking group study distinguished between summational and formative appraisal: â€Å" Formative, so that the positive accomplishments of a student may be recognised and discussed and the appropriate following stairss may be planned. Summative, for the recording of the overall accomplishment of a student in a systematic manner † ( DES/WO 1988: parity. 23 ) The TGAT argued that formative appraisal was rule in raising criterions ( DES/WO, 1988 ) . However, as Black ( 2000 ) notes, their statement was considered ‘weak ‘ and was mostly ignored in pattern. The usage of summational appraisal prevailed due to the demand for schools to show high criterions of instruction ( Black, 2000 ) . Wiliam ( 2001 ) adds that as a consequence, appraisal became divorced from larning and the immense part that appraisal could do to acquisition was mostly lost. Under the new Labour Government the NC was revised and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority ( QCA ) determined that students would be assessed and a study would be written at the terminal of each Key Stage. Although there is still a demand for summational appraisal, the comprehensiveness of survey offered by the NC suggests that formative appraisal has an increasing function in back uping acquisition ( NC 2008 ) . More late formative appraisal has been labelled as ‘Assessment f or Learning ‘ ( AfL ) . It was non until Black and Wiliam ( 1998 ) published conclusive grounds that AfL significantly improved students larning that there was a considerable push for execution in schools and hence became an indispensable constituent of schoolroom work ( Black and Wiliam, 1998 ) . As Black et al province few enterprises in instruction have had such a strong organic structure of grounds to back up a claim to raise criterions ( 2004: 9 ) . In its simplest signifier, AfL is described as: â€Å" The procedure of seeking and construing grounds for usage by scholars and their instructors to make up one's mind where the scholars are in their acquisition, where they need to travel and how best to acquire at that place † . ( Assessment Reform Group, 2002 ) The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority ( QCA ) enhance this thought of construing grounds by presenting the impression that AfL enables students to be responsible for their ain acquisition. They add that students will better most if they understand the purpose of their acquisition, where they are in relation to this purpose and how they can accomplish the purpose ( or shut the spread in their cognition ) ( QCA, 2008 ) . Therefore one could reason that AfL encourages independent larning which increases self efficiency beliefs and the capableness to execute ( Pintrich and De Groot, 1990 ) . This relationship is supported by Deci and Ryan ‘s ( 1985 ) Self-government Theory ( SDT ) which purports that if a individual ‘s demand for liberty is satisfied so the motive to better will be intrinsic instead than extrinsic ( Vansteenkiste et al, 2006 ; Deci and Ryan, 2002 ) . Furthermore this correlates with the societal constructivist theory of acquisition and the humanistic do ctrine of larning. Inspired by such theoreticians as Abraham Maslow ( 1954 ) and Carl Rogers ( 1951 ) AfL encourages pupils to hold the ‘freedom to larn ‘ , understand and be cognizant of one ‘s strengths and failings with an built-in belief to win. Maslow ( 1954 ) and Rogers ( 1951 ) argue that intrinsic motive is a more healthy signifier. Reinboth and Duada ( 2004 ) agree, saying that intrinsic motive and desire is associated with increased ego regard, enjoyment, continuity ( Deci and Ryan, 1985 ) and more effectual acquisition ( Gottfried, 1990 ) . The supposed benefits of AfL run throughout instruction, with deductions that kids from a primary age benefit from holding self awareness around their ain acquisition through to those in higher instruction, at College and University. Indeed the Dearing Report ( 1997 ) provinces: â€Å" The universe of work is in continual alteration: persons will progressively necessitate to develop new capablenesss and to pull off their ain development and acquisition throughout life † . ( Dearing, 1997: 12 ) However as Swaffield ( 2008 ) notes assessment is multifaceted and complicated, it comes in a assortment of pretenses, takes many signifiers and fulfils many intents ( 2008: 11 ) . It would look that through the procedure of AfL there is an outlook that scholar ‘s become more confident, independent and independent ( Taras, 2002 ) and therefore the duty for the pupils ‘ acquisition is shared ( Black et al, 2004 ) . Whilst it may look an wholly positive intercession and one that lends itself to a ego reflective, dynamic and empowered larning experience I do question how genuinely realistic AfL is in the schoolroom? Indeed AfL may be desirable, but as Webb and Jones ( 2009 ) inquiry how easy is it for instructors to accomplish? Successful execution of AfL certainly depends on the acquisition attack and instructors ‘ cognition, accomplishments and schemes that they use to transport out complex pedagogical procedures ( 2009: 167 ) . Furthermore is our instruction system is set up for an environment to the full centred on the demands of the person? As Taras ( 2002 ) provinces, do our current patterns maintain gait with our ideals of pupil centred acquisition? ( 2002: 508 ) . Taras raises a valid statement. Is it possible to to the full encompass AfL when our instruction system is designed to fix kids for summational testing at the terminal of each stage of schooling? Given that our instruction system is based upon summational trial scores one could reason that there are assorted messages ; empower scholars so that they understand the roots of their acquisition and take duty for this acquisition yet guarantee that all scholars pass trials on a national degree. On the one manus by promoting AfL it would look that we are accepting and so encompassing the fact that all scholars are different ; larn in different ways and at different velocities. Yet on the other manus, we continue to prove all scholars on a mainstream, national degree and systematically generate degrees and numerical marks for every student. Black and William ( 1998 ) promote the formative usage of summational testing, so instead than seeing proving as a agency of mensurating, ‘it can be used to supply an indicant of students ‘ strengths and development demands, particularly at of import phases of their academic calling ‘ ( Smith, 2010: 4 ) . However one might hold with Taras ( 2002 ) ; our current patterns within instruction certainly do non suit with the ideals upon which AfL are based. Hargreaves ( 2008 ) concurs ; saying that the Government has put in topographic point a ‘debased version of the Black and Wiliam theoretical account of AfL ‘ due to our constricting theoretical account of instruction ( 2008: 1 ) . Although the execution of AfL may be criticised the intent and possible acquisition results are widely accepted. Feedback is important to successful acquisition ( Swaffield, 2008 ; Black and Wiliam, 1998 ) and is arguably one of the most effectual signifiers of educational intercession ( Hattie, 2007 ; Wiliam, 2007 ) . Oral feedback, through inquiring, is less developed than written feedback but can be a powerful manner of giving instant formative feedback to pupils. Furthermore oppugning can work both ways and besides provide instant feedback from the pupil to the instructor. Effective inquiring goes beyond inquiring simple ‘open ‘ inquiries ( as opposed to closed ‘yes ‘ or ‘no ‘ inquiries ) and can be a hard tool to seamlessly implement into the schoolroom. However despite any troubles the DfES ( 2007 ) province a overplus of grounds as to why oppugning offers the chance for a extremely effectual schoolroom where AfL is obviously active. The most outstanding ground cited is that of oppugning holding the ability to enable students to gain what they know and, more significantly, what they partially know and guide them to farther develop their apprehension ( 2007: 2 ) . Black et Al ( 2004 ) agree, adding that oppugning can go portion of the synergistic atmospher of the schoolroom and can supply an priceless chance to widen pupils ‘ thought through immediate feedback on their work ( 2004:12 ) . Crowe and Stanford ( 2010 ) further add that the effectual usage of oppugning creates a ‘dynamic and synergistic duologue ‘ and so utilizing higher degree oppugning and believing ‘predicates the use of information and thoughts which, in bend, provide an chance to develop new thoughts and apprehensions ‘ ( 2010: 36 ) . Mentioning to the lesson sequence overview at appendix 1 ( page 2 ) it is apparent that I intended to utilize oppugning as an imperative appraisal tool as I felt that it would give me an instan t overview and apprehension of the kids ‘s acquisition and how they may be able to come on farther. In add-on I decided to do usage of the single whiteboards ( see appendix 2a and 2b ) when utilizing oppugning as this would let me to measure the category as a whole, instead than merely an single kid that answers a directed inquiry. The usage of oppugning is perceived to hold many advantages. As the Northern Eastern Education and Library Board ( NEELB ) ( 2008 ) and Trinkle ( 2009 ) note set uping the correct schoolroom clime is important to effectual inquiring. Black et Al ( 2004 ) concur ; adding that in order for oppugning to be an effectual AfL device the instructor needs to accommodate a ‘risk taking civilization ‘ and a ‘community of question ‘ ( 2004: 11 ) . Through my ain pattern I strived to make this inclusive community, guaranting that I included all kids and made them experience valued and comfy to portion their ain ideas and thoughts. I was happy for kids to give a ‘wrong ‘ reply and by researching why the reply may non be right, as opposed to merely stating ‘no ‘ , I felt that this contributed to a supportive and encouraging schoolroom environment. Rae and Nelson ( 2010 ) agree, emphasizing the importance of making a collaborative acquisition environm ent otherwise the fright of acquiring a inquiry incorrect and looking like a failure in forepart of their equals will deter scholars from seting their manus up or replying a inquiry if selected. As shown on my programs in appendix 2a, 2b and 2c I pre-empted inquiries that I felt would be relevant to the kids and would foreground whether or non the kids had listened, understood and interpreted the information given about instructions. I thought approximately unfastened inquiries yet was really cognizant of the age of my category and was hence witting non to inquire inquiries that may confound them. Looking at the inquiries I had planned at appendix 2a, Rogers and Abell ( 2008 ) would knock me for non incorporating multi degree oppugning. On the most basic degree inquiries such as ‘what are instructions? ‘ , ‘how are they used? ‘ and ‘what happens if the instructions are non in the right order ‘ are all unfastened inquiries and do so necessitate the scholar to believe about an reply which goes beyond merely ‘yes or ‘no ‘ . However they are all comprehension inquiries. Whilst comprehensive inquiries demonstrate that the kids show apprehension of information callback and can set this information in their ain words ( Crowe and Stanford, 2010 ) on a more holistic degree I have non utilised the different types and degrees of inquiries ( cognition, comprehension. application, analysis, rating, and synthesis ) to back up my systematic development of oppugning schemes ( Hill and Flynn, 2008 ) . As Anderson and Krathwohl ( 2000 ) province I have fallen in to a common trap ; teacher ‘s frequently do non gain the types or qualities of inquiries that they use. To better upon this in the hereafter, Costa ( 2000 ) suggests that developing a broad scope of oppugning schemes that include a diverseness of inquiry types will heighten the acquisition environment and let for distinction within the learning procedure. There are a figure of ways in which this may be achieved. Clarke ( 2005 ) proposes utilizing Edward De Bono ‘s Six Thinking Hats, with each chapeau being linked to a different thought scheme and therefore a different manner of oppugning. For illustration White Hat believing involves informations and information presented neutrally, so inquiries would include ‘what information is losing? ‘ Black Hat believing involves being defensive and cautious, so inquiries would include ‘why would this non work? ‘ I could besides hold thought about Blooms Taxonomy ( 1956 ) to develop a broader scope of oppugning types. The foundation work of Bloom ‘s taxonomy divides educational aims into three separate spheres, cognitive, affectional and psycho-motor and hence encourages a focal point towards a more holistic position of instruction. Using Bloom as a stimulation would promote one to believe about the different spheres and how to integrate these into the types of oppugning used. As Black et Al ( 2004 ) recognise, utilizing a assortment of inquiry types allows scholars to go more active participants and come to gain that acquisition may depend less on their capacity to descry the right reply and more on their preparedness to show and discourse their ain apprehension ( 2004: 13 ) . Upon farther contemplation of my ain usage of oppugning I noticed that I tended to inquire a inquiry and so merely wait for a few seconds before either inquiring another kid or, on occasion, replying the inquiry myself if that kid had non responded. Rowe and Hill ( 1996 ) note that this is a common happening in the usage of inquiring, and in fact their survey on oppugning concluded that on norm instructor ‘s waited less than a 2nd before they intervened. Black et Al ( 2004 ) argue that the effect of such short ‘wait clip ‘ is that the lone inquiries that ‘work ‘ are those that can be answered rapidly, without idea ; that is, inquiries naming for memorised facts. As a consequence the duologue is at a superficial degree ( 2004: 11 ) . Harmonizing to the NEELB ( 2008 ) there are a figure of schemes that I could set in topographic point which would supply scholars with critical thought clip and therefore they would be better placed to react. Immediately, one scheme would be to increase the wait clip ( Black et al, 2003 ; Taras, 2009 ; Crowe and Stanford, 2010 ) . Swaffield ( 2008 ) explains that this would let scholars the critical clip they need to reply the inquiry, would ensue in fewer ‘I do n't cognize ‘ , would bring forth more thoughtful and originative replies and would profit all scholars, no affair their ability. Black et Al ( 2004 ) note that many instructors find it difficult to make this, for it requires them to interrupt their established wonts. However once they change, the outlooks of their pupils are challenged ( 2004: 11 ) . Other schemes, supported by Trincani and Crozier ( 2007 ) and the NEELB ( 2008 ) , include affecting the whole category instead than merely one person, walking around the room whilst inquiring inquiries ( this takes the force per unit area off an person ) , utilizing a ‘no hands up ‘ attack ( this would promote all scholars to remain engaged for longer ) and eventually utili zing the ‘think, brace, portion ‘ scheme to affect the whole category and give those scholars who are somewhat shyer the chance to take part. As Taras ( 2009 ) states incorporating these schemes create a displacement in the inquiring model. Learning moves from a behavioristic theory where factual callback was prioritised, to a societal constructivist position taken from cognitive psychological science, where a complex model of factors within a given context permits scholars to research their ain apprehension ( 2009: 64 ) . Atkins et Al ( 1993 ) agree, observing that this would besides look to match to ‘deep ‘ larning as opposed to ‘surface ‘ acquisition ( 1993: 50 ) . To reason AfL plays a polar function in the schoolroom, and so literature emphasises the importance of AfL as a procedure to increase students ‘ duty for their ain acquisition ( DfES 2007 ) . This essay has critically explored the intent of AfL, foregrounding the disagreements between the Government push for AfL to be used throughout instruction yet within a system which still relies to a great extent on summational testing. I have analysed my ain usage of one component of AfL ; oppugning, and can reason that it is a powerful device that has several benefits for the instructor. Questioning has the ability to arouse kids ‘s ‘ understanding, make an environment that encourages hazard pickings, contributes to classroom interaction and promotes larning and enthusiasm. However in order to to the full accomplish these benefits one must carefully see and reflect upon the nature of inquiries used and actively program to implement the usage of multi flat inquiries as portion of their lesson planning ( Anderson & A ; Krathwohl, 2000 ; Hill & A ; Flynn, 2008 ) . As I progress as a instructor I will now take more clip to see the usage of oppugning so that I guarantee that I am maximizing its full potency.

Cognitive Science The Scientific Study Of The Mind

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